Energy Resources & Some Alternatives

Introduction

Information on the availability and consumption of renewable and non renewable energy resources is given in the next few sections of this page. Later sections focus on details around alternative and renewable energy » (click here). Carbon sequestration is covered in the managing impacts page » (click here).

Energy use - How much is left

Each year the world uses energy equivalent to ten thousand million tonnes of oil, or 12,000 power stations.

Additional unproven resources for these fuels have been suggested. This table deals only with what has been proven.

In particular, nuclear fuel could be made to last thousands of years by using thorium, fast breeder reactors or fusion, provided issues of weapons proliferation can be solved.

There are multiple strategies to deal with this diminishing supply and the issues of global warming, including: demand management, energy efficiency, CO₂ sequestration, development of renewable energy resources and nuclear power.

Energy efficienciy and renewables are already being introduced, steadily increasing each year. However, for renewable resources to reach anything like their huge potential they will need to be developed alongside radical changes in demand management, energy storage and distribution. CO₂ sequestration will take about twenty years to demonstrate feasibility and become incorporated into industrial infrastructure. Nuclear power will need about twenty years to try and overcome issues of weapons proliferation and cost effectiveness. All approaches are likely to be important but it will be several decades before they are widely enough used to make an impact.

The next section describes resource and usage in more detail and introduces data on renewable and alternative energy resources. It draws on publications from the United Nations Development Program, the World Energy Council and the International Energy Association all of whom have compiled comprehensive and concise reports that are readily accessible from the internet.

How much energy do we need?

The United Nations has generated an index of human well being called the "Human Development Index" (HDI). They have compiled the data that relates HDI to energy consumption per capita and this is shown in the chart below. The relationship between energy and HDI is complex and will involve many other common parameters for example climate temperature and governance.

The Human Development Index (HDI) measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development:
» UNDP [1]

• A long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth.
• Knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate (with two-thirds weight) and the combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrollment ratio (with one-third weight).
• A decent standard of living, as measured by GNP per capita ( PPP USD).

Embedded in the United Nations Millenium Development Goals is the need to ensure at least 1kW of energy available per person Comparative examples of per capita consumption in 2003 » UNDP [2], » IAEA [3]

• USA ~ 11 kW
• Australia ~ 9kW
• Europe ~ 6 kW
• China ~ 1kW
• World Average ~ 2 kW
• UNMDG ~ aspire to 1kW

An observation from the chart below » UNDP [2] is that for much of the developed world energy consumption could be reduced considerably without markedly affecting HDI. However, the energy consumption figures for some countries may include significant energy usage for exports or for coping with very cold climates.

World Consumption and Human Development Index
» UNDP [2]

References & Links

1. United Nations Development Organisation » [home page] "Human development Report”
   » Available: http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/indices/ [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



2. United Nations Development Organisation, Energy & Environment, Sustainable energy » [home page]
   “World Energy Assessment Overview Part 2. Basic Energy Facts” (2004 Update)
   » Available: http://www.undp.org/energy/docs/WEAOU_part_II.pdf [accessed 2007, May.1]



3. International Atomic Energy Agency » [home page]
   "Energy and Environment Data Reference Bank"
   » Available: http://www.iaea.org/inis/aws/eedrb/data/IN-encc.html [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



4. United Nations » [home page] "UN Energy Statistics Year Book"
   » Available: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/energy/yearbook/EYB_pdf.htm [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]

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Where does the energy come from?

World Energy Annual Consumption
» IAEA [1]

10GTOe or 5x10²⁰J or 5x10¹⁷ BTU’s or 500 Quads or 1x10¹³W or 12,000 power stations - See notes for » conversion units [1]

World Non Renewable Resource & Use
» UNDP [2]

The table below, "World Primary Energy Use & Reserves" » UNDP[2] describes: -

• the rate of consumption (columns 2 & 3)
• the energy resource known to be available and accessible (column 5)
• the years left if consumption remains unchanged (column 6)
• years left if we discover estimated new & unconventional resources and the market doesn't change (column 7)
• years left if we take account of predicted changes to the market for energy (column 8)

Column 2 gives consumption as energy used per year (exajoules/year)
Column 3 gives consumption as the equivalent weight of oil per year to supply energy at the world's present rate of use (GToe/year)
Column 6 the years left if nothing changes, and is obtained as column 5 divided by column 3

The nuclear energy resource life is 80 years at present consumption rates using well established technology.
This could extend to ten thousand years if fast breeder, thorium or unconventional sources of fuel were used.
Fusion reactors have not been included

World Renewable Resource & Use
» UNDP [2]

References & Links

1. International Atomic Energy Agency » [home page] "Energy and Environment Data Reference Bank"
   » Available: http://www.iaea.org/inis/aws/eedrb/data/IN-encc.html [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



2. United Nations Development Organisation, Energy & Environment, Sustainable energy » [home page]
   “World Energy Assessment Overview Part II. Basic Energy Facts” (2004 Update)
   » Available: http://www.undp.org/energy/docs/WEAOU_part_II.pdf [accessed 2007, May.1]



3. United Nations Development Organisation, Energy & Environment, Sustainable energy » [home page]
   “World Energy Assessment Overview - Part IV: Energy Resources and Technological Options” (2004 Update)
   » Available: http://www.undp.org/energy/docs/WEAOU_part_IV.pdf [accessed 2007, May.1]

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Where is it going?

World Energy Consumption by Region
» UN Millenium Project [1]

World Access to Electricity
» IEA [2]

World Energy Consumption by Usage
» EIA [3]

References & Links

1. Modi, V., S. McDade, D. Lallement, and J. Saghir. 2006. Energy and the Millennium Development Goals. New York: Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme, United Nations Development Programme, UN Millennium Project, and World Bank.
   Millennium Project » [home page] “Energy Services for the Millennium Development Goals”
   » Available: http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/reports/rp_energy.htm [accessed 2007, May.1]



2. International Energy Association » [home page] "Energy and Poverty" Chapter 13 World Energy Outlook 2002
   » Available: http://www.iea.org/Textbase/publications/free_new_Desc.asp?PUBS_ID=989 [accessed 2007, May.1]



3. Energy Information Administration » [home page] “International Energy Outlook 2006”
   » Available: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/highlights.html [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]

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How much fossil fuel have we left?

Crude Oil - regional distribution/reserves/production ratio
» WEC [1]

Coal - regional distribution of proven reserves
» WEC [2]

"In dealing with the specific reserves of coal, there is little change in the total world figures, just a slight overall increase on the previous Survey. This is a predictable outcome, given the maturity of the industry and the large amount of reserves relative to current rates of exploitation. The rough and ready explanation of a production level showing that exploitation can continue at current levels in excess of 200 years is correct in arithmetic terms, but of little consequence or value given the size of this number. The world is not going to run out of physically-available supplies of coal." » WEC [2]

World Consumption - Oil, Gas & Coal - 2003
» EIA [3]

References & Links

1. World Energy Council » [home page] “WEC Survey of energy resources - Crude Oil ”
   » Available: http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/oil/oil.asp [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



2. World Energy Council » [home page] “WEC Survey of energy resources - Coal ”
   » Available: http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/coal/coal.asp [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



3. Energy Information Administration » [home page] “International Energy Outlook 2006”
   » Available: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/world.html [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]

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Future Energy - Some Assessment Criteria

In looking to future energy resources a few of the key questions I would ask are: -

• Sustainability (Is their enough of the energy resource to justify the capital expenditure)
• Energy density (Is the resource concentrated enough or accessible enough to be useful & economic)
• Feasibility (is there a clear path from the idea to commercial-industrial implementation)
• Logistical (ability to transport or transmit the energy)
• Environmental & social impacts
• Cost, time and energy needed to build new infrastructure
• Embodied energy (energy needed to produce energy)

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Biomass

Biomass use involves taking the energy of the sun to grow biological material and then harvesting that material for fuel. Trees, switch grass, sugar cane, grain, root crops, palm oil, animal fats, algae or bacteria have all been proposed or used as fuel biomass.

There are obvious risks and opportunities in depending on agriculture for fuel. Will its use displace food crops? Can growing biomass improve and reclaim agricultural land? » [1] There are less obvious questions such as how much net energy can be produced from biomass. In this last respect biomass is different from fossil fuel. One can use more energy than is produced when manufacturing fossil based fuel because it is a resource that is taken and not replaced. Eventually it will run out. If biomass is to be used as a renewable fuel then the energy used to manufacture it should be less than the fuel supplies to an end user. There needs to be a net gain in energy, otherwise it is no longer renewable.

This section first describes some of the limitations of using biomass, then how much is being used around the world and to what extent it can meet human needs. It looks at ethanol as an example of the energy considerations involved in biomass production and finally describes algae as a new and potentially very efficient biomass resource. The use of wood and charcoal to produce energy and improve land quality is covered in another page under sequestration (» click here).

The fundamental potential and limitations of biomass are concisely described in the abstract to a paper “Energy from the Biological Conversion of Solar Energy” (Boardman et al, 1980). The abstract is reproduced below: -

Potential and Limitations of Biomass

Abstract “Energy from the Biological Conversion of Solar Energy” N.K.Boardman, M.W.Thring, D.R.Johnston, D.T.Swift-Hook (1980)

“Trees and other forms of vegetation are well designed for the collection and storage of solar energy. Moreover, photosynthetic organisms show enormous diversity and are well adapted for a wide range of environments. Biomass is convertible to liquid and gaseous fuels by a number of established processes, and this paper examines the possible contribution of biomass to world energy demands. The maximum efficiency of solar energy conversion in plant production is 5-6% (1), but plants grown under usual field conditions do not achieve this degree of conversion. The highest yielding crops convert solar energy into plant material with an efficiency of 1-2%, but the average yields of the major crops and forests indicate considerably lower efficiencies. The average efficiency of solar energy conversion on a global scale is estimated as about 0.15%. The energy content of the annual biomass residues in Australia and U.S.A. is equal to about one-quarter of the primary energy use in those countries, but only about one-third of the residues are considered to be readily recoverable. A number of high yielding crops are examined as potential fuel crops. Energy inputs for growing non-irrigated crops in Australia are estimated to amount to 7-17% of the solar energy stored in the total crop biomass. Irrigation adds considerably to the energy cost of producing crops. The overall energy efficiency of fuel production from biomass varies from 20 to 58%, depending on the nature of the biomass and the process used to produce liquid or gaseous fuel. A recent estimate by an Australian committee of the potential contribution of biomass to liquid fuel production in Australia is presented. It is concluded that biomass will not be able to provide a substantial fraction of the world's energy demand, although it can make a useful contribution.” [Boardman et al, 2 ]

Resource

World’s photosynthetic flux 10¹⁴W (15kW/person). It currently provides about 13% of our energy Twidell & Weir » [3]

 

Hazards & Environmental Impact

Deforestation, soil erosion, displacement of food crops, excess water use

 

Forms of Usage

Charcoal, Liquid Fuels, Biogas, Direct Combustion

 

Resource Available Globally

This table is derived from Table 11.3 in Twidell & Weir » [3].

The table gives an estimate comparing the maximum biomass energy potentially available in a country with the energy needs of that country. Twidell & Weir derived their table from a paper by Hall (1993) » [4]. They make the point: "The asumptions used are generally optimistic about what is recoverable, how much land is available for plantations and the possible biomass yields on that land"

Is There a Net Gain in Energy When Making Ethanol from Biomass?

The table below is derived from Tables 11.1 & 11.5 in Twidell & Weir » [3]

The table shows how much energy it takes to make ethanol from sugarcane, timber or straw and compares it with the energy in the ethanol produced (30MJ / kg). The data suggest that the crops 'waste' material should be used to provide fuel for the conversion process in order to produce a significant energy surplus.

Algae to produce fuel or convert waste carbon dioxide

This photograph by Donna Coveney comes from the MIT Energy Research Council. It shows an experimental algae system that was set up in a trial to absorb CO2 and other gases from the exhaust of MIT's cogeneration plant. The inventor Isaac Berzin is on the left with Peter Cooper from MIT's Department of Facilities. The tubes to their right contain the algae and water mix which process the exhaust gas. This study is now complete and the work is being carried forward by GreenFuel technology.

Photo: Donna Coveney/MIT [5]

Trials were subsequently carried out at an installation in Phoenix Arizona with the Arizona Public Service Company (APS) and GreenFuel Technologies Corporation. They recently announced the first successful recycling of carbon dioxide from the exhaust gas of a commercial powerplant, into transportation grade biodiesel and ethanol.

References & Links

1. Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for Decision Makers - UN FAO » [home page]
   » Available: http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/susdev.Biofuels.FAO.pdf



2. N. K. Boardman, M. W. Thring, D. R. Johnston, D. T. Swift-Hook
   “Energy from the Biological Conversion of Solar Energy” Phil Trans R. Soc. Lon.
   Series A, Math & Phys Sci, Vol. 295, No. 1414 (Feb. 7, 1980)



3. Twidell.J, Weir.T “Renewable Energy Resources” Taylor & Francis 2006



4. Hall,D.O., Rosillo-Calle,F., Williams,R.H., Woods,J. (1993) "Biomass for energy: supply prospects", in Johansson et al (1993), pp. 593-651



5. Nancy Stauffer “Algae system transforms greenhouse emissions into green fuel” MIT Energy Research Council



6. GreenFuel Technology » [home page] "Press releases"
   » Available: http://www.greenfuelonline.com/press_releases.htm [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]

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Geothermal

Geothermal energy originates within the earths crust from several sources: radioactive decay, chemical reactions and mechanical friction. Heat can be obtained from the earth using heat pumps, pumping from hot aquifers, pumping water through natural or artificial cracks in hot dry rocks such as granite, or taking heat from cooling semi-molten lava or hot dry rocks.

Resource Potential & Current Usage

Available Energy Density
Typical energy densities based on average geothermal flux
1020Jkm -2 (0.1% - 30years ->100MWkm -2). Twidell & Weir » [1]

Current world yearly production
1EJ (Quad) equivalent to 26m tons oil or 80m tons CO2
Enough to heat 15m houses WEC. » [2]

Installed capacity [1]

• USA (5,366 MWt)
• China (2,814 MWt)
• Iceland (1,469 MWt)
• World (16,649 MWt)

The energy produced per year from the above installations is equivalent to:
1EJ (Quad) or 26m tons oil or 80m tons CO2. Enough to heat 15m houses

Classifying geothermal regions » [1]

• Hyperthermal: 80 oCkm -1 (eg Tuscany 1904)
• Semithermal: 40-80 oCkm -1 (eg Paris)
• Normal: <40 oCkm -1 (uncompetitive)

Types of heat production In common use » [1]
Heat pumps (7 deg c – 21 deg C)
Natural hydrothermal circulation (deep hot aquifers) 50 oC – 350 oC

Types of heat production In experimental use » [1]
Dry Rock Fracturing (water passed through cracks in hot dry rock eg granite)
Hot igneous (water passed near semi-molten lava - magma)

A hazard to be considered is the possibility of earth tremors SWISSINFO » [3]

Australia ’s hot rock resources
Hunter Valley, Eromanga and Cooper Basins
A very comprehensive analysis of geothermal technology and economics
can be found at the Australian National University site » [4]

Further information
The ANU has a very detailed decription of hot dry rock technology and resources, in general and specific to Australia.
Their site covers detailed technical and economic analyses. ANU » [5]

Hot Dry Rock Geothermal System Concept
» EIA [3]

Source: Energy Information Administration,

References & Links

1. Twidell.J & Weir.T Renewable Energy Resources Taylor & Francis 2006



2. World Energy Council » [home page] "Survey of Energy Resources - Geothermal Energy"
   » Available: http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser04/fuels.asp?fuel=Geothermal%20Energy [accessed 2007, April. 25]



3. SWISSINFO » [home page]
   » Available: http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/front/detail/Man_made_tremor_shakes_Basel.html?siteSect=105&sid=7334248&cKey=1165839658000 [accessed 2007, March. 14]



4. International Energy Association » [home page]
   “Hot Dry Rock Geothermal System Concept for Low-Permeable Formations - Renewable Energy Annual 1996”
   » Available: http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



5. Australian National University » [home page] "Hot Rock Energy" Australian National University.
   » Available: http://hotrock.anu.edu.au/index.htm [accessed 2007, March. 17]

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Nuclear

Fission

Resources of uranium are not sufficient to meet world energy needs for longer than 50 to a 100 years if commercially available reactors are used. There are technologies being developed that may do better, for example a group of designs known as Generation IV reactors. These use fast breeder techniques to make nuclear fuel resources last longer, possibly 1000's of years. Some of these reactors use thorium, which is three times as abundant as uranium and 'burns' more completely and again has the potential to supply energy for thousands of years. Generation IV reactors are also being designed to reduce radioactive waste and the possibility of nuclear weapons proliferation. They are likely to take another twenty years before starting to become established. GIF » [1]

More advanced concepts involve combining fission reactors with fusion or linear accelerator devices that supply neutrons to help with the breeding of fuel and the reduction of waste.

Sustainability
Uranium 50-100 years without reprocessing and fast breeder devices
1000’s years with reprocessing and/or fast breeder technology and/or thorium

Timeliness - 20 years for Generation IV reactors.

Cost – currently heavily subsidised

Weapons proliferation – currently high risk

Waste – 1000’s years for the radioactivity in the waste to decay to the level of the elements in the original ore. Even after this decay the net radioactivity of the waste is very much higher than the background of an ore body because the radioactive material is concentrated for storage. Generation IV reactors may be able to reduce these levels of waste.

Decay In Radioactivity of High Level Waste
» OECD NEA [2]

» Read more here . . .

Fusion

There are a number of fusion technologies under development: Tokamac, Laser, Focus fusion devices.

The Tokamac technology is a well established design for confining a plasma in a magnetic field at temperatures and pressures sufficiently high to allow nuclear fusion of tritium and deuterium. It is currently being developed in an international collaboration known as the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ITER. The reactor is designed to produce 500 MW for up to 500 seconds and will take 30 years to build and trial at a cost of US12bn.

The laser fusion device was originally developed at Lawrence Livermore laboratories and uses beams of laser light to compress fuel pellets containing tritium and deuterium to sufficiently high pressure and temperature to achieve fusion. It is still in an experimental phase and not nearly as strongly supported internationally as the ITER project

The Focus Fusion technology is one of a number of small scale concepts that attempt to fuse hydrogen and boron. It is expected to have greater efficiency as fusion energy is converted directly to electrical energy. It is potentially orders of magnitude smaller in size and cost than either the ITER or laser technologies and it does not generate neutrons in any significant quantity. There has not yet been a demonstration of a working device but experiments and development are continuing in a collaboration between US scientists and the Chilean Nuclear Energy Commissions’ Thermonuclear Plasma Laboratory in Santiago.

Resource – tritium & deuterium or boron & hydrogen

Sustainability - (1000’s years)

Timeliness – Currently in Research likely 50 -100 years before significant impact

Cost - Tokamak and Laser technologies likely to be high Focus Fusion potentially low cost but at a very early stage of development

Environmental impact – low level waste from constructional material

References & Links

1. The Generation IV International Forum
   » Available: http://www.gen-4.org/ [accessed 2007, March. 15]



2. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency » [home] "Radioactive Waste Management in Perspective"
   » Available: http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/1996/1996-7.html [accessed 2007, April. 25]



3. Uranium Information Centre
   » Available: http://www.uic.com.au/ [accessed 2007, March. 15]



4. EURATOM UKAEA Fusion Association
   » Available: http://www.fusion.org.uk/ [accessed 2007, March. 15]



5. Focus Fusion Society
   » Available: http://focusfusion.org/ [accessed 2007, March. 15]



6. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory » [home] "Crossing the Petawatt Threshold"
   » Available: http://www.llnl.gov/str/Petawatt.html [accessed 2007, March. 15]

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Wind

World Wind Power Capacity ~ 72 TW or 54,000 Mtoe
» Archer & Jacobson [1]

An evaluation of the capacity of accessible wind power sites world wide has been described in the paper "Evaluation of Global Wind Power" by Cristina Archer and Mark Jacobson of Stanford University. The study was based on measurements carried out at sites with a wind speed greater than 6.9 m/s and therefore suitable for economic wind power generation with modern wind turbines. An estimate of wind speeds was made at 80m above ground for all sites.

By using the assumption that the statistics they obtained from all the stations analysed would represent the global distribution of winds Archer and Jacobson estimated that sites with wind speeds greater than 6.9m/s could supply approximately 72 TW (54,000Mtoe) and that if 20% of this power could be obtained it would satisfy 100% of the world's total energy demand. They believe this is a conservative estimate. However, they also point out that the sites with great potential tend to be in Europe, North America, the tip of South America and Australia and that many practical barriers would need to be overcome.

The paper provides detailed wind maps for individual continents and the world as a whole. The figure below is one of their maps.

"Figure 2 Map of wind speed extrapolated to 80 m an averaged over all days of the year 2000
at sounding locations with 20 or more valid readings for the year 2000." Archer & Jacobson » [1]

Power Curve For A 1.65 MW Wind Turbine
» WEC [2]

Power Out (kW)

                                       Hub height wind speed (m/s)

Growth in World Wind Generating Capacity
» WEC [2]

Wind Energy Share of Global Market
» BP [3]

References & Links

1. Archer, C. L., and M. Z. Jacobson (2005), "Evaluation of global wind power", J. Geophys. Res., 110, D12110, doi:10.1029/2004JD005462. Stanford University » [home]
   » Available: http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/global_winds.html [accessed 2007, April. 27]



2. World Energy Council » [home page] "Survey of Energy Resources - Wind Energy”
   » Available: http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/wind/wind.asp [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



3. “Wind Energy” BP Global Report.
   http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=9010989&contentId=7021594 [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]

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Rivers, Seas and Oceans

Energy Potential
» Twidell & Weir [1]

Map of Energy Resource
» Ocean Power Delivery Ltd [2]

» Ocean Power Delivery Ltd » [2]

Wave power generator. A wind farm is being developed in Orkney Scotland using these machines.
"A typical 30MW installation would occupy a square kilometre of ocean and provide sufficient electricity
for 20,000 homes. Twenty of these farms could power a city such as Edinburgh." [2]

» Energetech Australia Pty Ltd » [3]

Prototype wave power generator currently operating near Port Kembla Harbour (Wollongong NSW)

References & Links

1. Twidell.J & Weir.T Renewable Energy Resources Taylor & Francis 2006



2. Ocean Power Delivery Ltd.
   » Available: http://www.oceanpd.com/default.html [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



3. Energetech Australia Pty Ltd.
   » Available: http://www.energetech.com.au/ [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]

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Solar Power (3 to 30MJ per day per m²)

This page compares some basic solar power technologies and demonstrates the amount of land area required to supply all of Australia’s needs. The main problem with solar power is cited as the need for power storage at night. However, there are many ways to store power: chemically, electrically, thermally or through other physical methods. Solar towers for example propose using uses rocks and saltwater ponds to store heat which is used at night to continue generating the air flow that runs the tower. The references given provide a substantial review of available solar technologies.

A map of Australia showing the approximate area needed to supply all of Australia's electricity consumption with current PV technology has been
produced by the CRC for Coal in Sustainable Development » [1].

Australia ’s land area
7,692,024 km²
5% of world’s land area

References & Links

1. CRC for Coal in Sustainable Development » [home]
   Renewables” in Assessment of Power Generation Options for Australia
   » Available: http://www.ccsd.biz/products/emerging_technologies.cfm [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



2. CRC for Coal in Sustainable Development » [home]
   “Concentrating Solar Thermal” Assessment of Power Generation Options for Australia”
   » Available: http://www.ccsd.biz/publications/IAF_Report/CCSD%20IAF%20Appendix%20I%20-%20Concentrating%20solar%20power%20v1-5(Aug%202006).pdf [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



3. Geoscience Australia » [home] "Australia's Size Compared"
   » Available: http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/compare.htm [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



4. Energy Information Administration » [home page] “International Electricity Consumption”
   » Available: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/electricityconsumption.html [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



5. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics [home] “Australian energy consumption and production, 1974-75 to 2004-05”
   » Available: http://www.abareconomics.com/interactive/energy/index.html [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



6. Australian Bureau of Statistics [home] “Year Book Australia, 2003” Australian Bureau of Statistics.
   » Available: http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/667fdcd244561935ca256cae0015a743?OpenDocument [accessed 2007, Feb. 24]



7. Twidell.J & Weir.T Renewable Energy Resources Taylor & Francis 2006

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Some Paths Forward

IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Formed by World Meteorological Organisation and UN Environment Program to assess scientific, technical and socio- economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation. It is open to all Members of the UN and of WMO.

UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
An international treaty to consider what can be done to reduce global warming and cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable. The Kyoto Protocol is an addition to this treaty, which has more powerful (and legally binding) measures.

CDM – Clean Development Mechansim
Goals are to promote sustainable development and allow industrialized countries to earn emissions credits from emission-reducing projects in developing countries. To earn credits under the CDM, the project proponent must prove that greenhouse gas emissions reductions are real, measurable and additional to what would have occurred in the absence of the project. RGGI – Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, or RGGI, is a cooperative effort by USA North-eastern and Mid-Atlantic states to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. It is focusing on mitigation of power station emissions.

AP6 – Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate
(Australia, China, India, Japan, Republic of Korea and the United States) a framework for supporting agile, constructive, and productive international cooperation among the Partners to meet our development, energy, environment, and climate change objectives

GNEP – Global Nuclear Energy Partnership
A proposal for the use of nuclear power in a way that reduces weapons proliferation. Nations with secure, advanced nuclear capabilities would provide fresh fuel and recovery of used fuel to other nations who agree to employ nuclear energy for power generation purposes only. A closed fuel cycle model is envisioned with recycling and consumption of long-lived radioactive waste.

ITER – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

Feel free to email: questions – corrections - comments – new data
(please put the word "Climate" in the title to help reduce spam)

» peter@energysustained.com

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